Myanmar Dried Fish Consumption Survey - Results

Myanmar Dried Fish Consumption Survey - Results

This chapter presents the result related to (1) the general information of the respondents, (2) type of fish they consumed (3) per capita consumption, (4) source of fish consumed, (5) location of purchase, (6) method of consumption, and (7) details of the consumed fish species.

General information of the respondent

Figure 3 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

This study is composed of 960 respondents from 8 different states and regions. 45.8 % of the respondents are from delta and coastal regions, 32% from the central region of Myanmar, and 22.2% of the respondents come from the hilly region (Figure-3). Specifically, in most states and regions, three to four townships were selected for interviews and eleven townships in Ayeyarwaddy.

Figure 4 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

In the DFM survey, the ethnicity of the respondents was also noted. The majority of the respondents were Burmese, followed by other ethnicities such as the Kayin tribe. As shown in figure 5, two-third of respondents were Burmese, followed by Karen (9%), Shan (7%) and 3% Mon and Pao. ‘Other’ ethnicities accounted for 11%.

Number and percentage of households consuming different types of fish in the past 7 days

Figure 5 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

As presented in figure 5, fish is the main ingredient in the daily diet of households from all the states and regions. Almost every household in the delta region (Ayeyarwady, Yangon and Bago), and Mon, which is located on the coast, consumed some forms of fish within the past 7 days of the survey. 95% to 98 % of the households in the dry zone (Mandalay and Sagaing) and Kayin also consumed some kind of fish during the 7 days before the survey. Shan North had the lowest level of fish consumption, but even there, 55 % of the households consumed at least one type of fish product in the past week.

Figure 6 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

As shown in figure 6, processed fish, as well as fresh fish products are consumed frequently. 91%  to 99% of the households in Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Kayin, Mon and Yangon consumed processed fish, which is more than in the other states and regions, followed by Mandalay and Sagaing with over 80 %, and 36% in Shan North.

Likewise, fresh fish consumption accounts for over 90% in Mon, Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Yangon, between 96% to 99% per household, Shan state has the lowest consumption of any type of fish. Generally, it is noted that the consumption of processed fish is higher than the consumption of fresh fish in all states and regions, apart from Mon State.

Thus, it can be said that the consumption of both processed and fresh fish is mainly observed in the delta and coastal areas and that the proximity to the production area determines consumer preference.

Table 2 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘processed fish’ in past 7 days, by region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Any dried fish	57	73	73	77	40	74	77	18
Any dried shrimp	42	53	30	35	20	19	43	0
Any fermented products	90	91	95	89	84	66	87	6
Any salted fish	22	9	3	19	20	6	8	20
Any smoked fish	2	4	1	6	0	3	12	1
Canned fish	1	3	3	6	21	2	19	7
Any other fish products	1	8	9	24	10	14	21	15

Table-2 compares the consumption of the seven categories of processed fish. It is worth noting that salted fish and any other fish products are the fourth most consumed category of processed fish. The consumption of canned fish and any smoked fish is very low compared to other categories.

It is observed that fermented products are the most consumed form of processed fish in all states and regions, apart from Mandalay and Shan State. 90%-95% of the households in the delta region (Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, and Yangon) consumed fermented fish and over 80% of the households in Kayin, Mon State and Sagaing, whereas fermented fish consumption is much lower in Mandaly (66%), with the lowest in Shan North (6%).

Dried fish is the second highest category of processed fish, comprising 70% of the household’s consumption in most states and regions, except for Ayeyarwady where it comprises half of the consumption (57%), Sagaing (40%) and Shan North (18%). Dried shrimp stands third with over 40% of the household’s consumption in Ayeyarwaddy, Kayin, and Yangon. There was no consumption of dried shrimp in Shan North.

Table 3 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘fresh fish’ in past 7 days, by type of fresh fish and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar- wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Fresh fish (freshwater)	75	77	70	51	79	57	82	35
Fresh fish (marine)	25	34	36	61	0	8	8	0
Fresh fish (origin unknown)	2	1	2	0	0	6	0	0
Fresh shrimp	31	33	2	4	3	8	15	2
Fresh squid, molluscs, other	0	2	0	0	0	0	0	0
No Fresh fish	1	4	3	2	21	28	15	66
Any fresh fish	99	96	97	99	79	72	85	35

Table 3 illustrates the percentage of fresh fish consumption divided into different types and region. In general, fresh fish consumption is typically lower in Shan North compared to the other states and regions.

It is observed that 70-80% of the households in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kayin, Sagaing and Yangon consume fresh fish (freshwater), followed by over 50 % in Mandalay and Mon State. Shan North has the lowest consumption of fresh fish (freshwater) with 35%.

Fresh fish (marine) is mainly consumed in Mon State with 61% of the households’ consumption, followed by Ayeyarwady (25%), Bago (36%), and Yangon (34%), and lowest in Kayin and Mandalay with 8%. There was no fresh fish (marine) consumption in Sagaing and Shan North.

Fresh shrimp consumption is overall lower with 33% in Yangon and 31% in Ayeyarwady, followed by Kayin with 15%, and the remaining states and regions hardly consumed fresh shrimp. It is noted that fresh fish (origin unknown) and Fresh squid, molluscs are hardly consumed in all states and regions.

Table 4 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘fermented products’ in past 7 days, by type of products and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Shrimp paste (best quality)	3	1	0	0	0	9	9	0
Shrimp paste (medium quality)	16	0	3	0	33	20	14	1
Shrimp paste (low quality)	0	0	2	1	11	0	0	3
Shrimp paste - Other	1	0	5	0	34	22	0	2
Fish paste (whole fish, single species)	3	2	2	0	1	0	3	0
Fish paste (whole fish, mixed species)	3	16	3	1	5	3	25	0
Fish paste (broken fish, mixed species)	2	3	0	1	0	0	2	0
Fish paste - Other	0	9	6	16	0	5	0	0
Ngapi Ye (freshwater)	48	59	70	52	2	9	52	0
Ngapi Ye (marine)	18	8	16	22	0	0	0	0
Ngapi Ye (origin unknown)	1		0		0	0	2	0
Any fermented products	90		95		87	66	89	6

Overall, 90%-95% of the households in the delta region (Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Yangon) consumed some kind of fermented fish in the past 7 days, and over 80% of the households in Kayin, Mon and Sagaing. Fermented fish consumption is much lower in Mandalay (66%) and is the lowest in Shan North (6%).

Ngapi Ye, a fish paste, is the most common fermented product and is usually made by fermenting either salted fish or shrimp. Fish paste can be made either from freshwater or marine fish, whereas shrimp paste is always made with marine species.

Ngapi Ye is one of the main ingredients of the Lower Myanmar cuisine. However, it is not very popular in Upper Myanmar, for example, Shan State. Sometimes, in low-income families, Ngapi Yay, a watery preparation, forms the main dish and also the main source of protein.

As shown in table 5, shrimp and long whiskers catfish are mainly used for fermentation, compared to the other six species. It is noted that most of the species inhabit both freshwater and brackish. Unknown species accounted for 51%. There are different grades of Ngapi Ye, and it can be distinguished by the ingredients which are used to make it. Ngapi Ye can be made from whole fish, small fish, or prawns. Ngapi Ye is used as a condiment or additive in most dishes, but can also be eaten on its own.

As shown in table 4, it is observed that Ngapi Ye (freshwater), Ngapi Ye (marine), shrimp paste (medium quality), shrimp paste-other, Fish paste (whole fish, mixed species) are the most prominent products among the 11 categories.

Ngapi Ye (freshwater) is the most consumed type, followed by Ngapi Ye (marine). It is noted that 70% of the households in Bago consume freshwater Ngapi Ye, 59% in Yangon, 52% in Kayin and Mon, and 48% in Ayeyarwady, while Mandalay and Sagaing had a very low consumption. There was no consumption at all in Shan North. Ngapi Ye (marine) accounts for 22% in  Mon State, 18% in Ayeyarwady, 16% in Bago, 8% in Yangon, and no consumption was found in Kayin, Mandalay, Sagaing and Shan North.

Medium quality shrimp paste is the most consumed type of shrimp pastes. It accounts for 33% in Sagaing, 20% in Mandalay, 16% in Ayeyarwady, and 14% in Kayin. Bago and Shan North have a low rate of consumption and no consumption was found in Yangon and Mon State. ‘Other type’ of shrimp paste is the second most consumed type, with 34% in Sagaing, 22% in Mandalay and less than 5% in the other states and regions.

In the fish paste category, whole fish - mixed species is the most consumed type with 25% in Kayin, 16% in Yangon, no consumption in Shan North, and the percentage of consumption in the other states and region was very low.

Table 5 - List of the species that are used to be fermented

English name	Myanmar  name	Scientific name	Habitat	Number of responses
Unknown species				78
Shrimp				38
Long whiskers catfish	Nga-zin-yine	Mystus gulio	Freshwater; brackish;	17
Mixture of small fish				11
Manipur osteobrama	Nga-phel-oun	Osteobrama belangeri	Freshwater;	2
Swamp barb	Nga-khone-ma	Puntius chola	Freshwater	1
Stone roller	Nga-lu	Crossochilus latia	Freshwater; brackish	1
Climbing Perch	Nga-bye-ma	Anabas testudineus	Freshwater; brackish	1
Barramundi	Ka-ka-dit	Lates calcarifer	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1
Large head hairtail	Nga-tan-khon	Trichiurus lepturus	Marine; brackish	1
Striped snakehead	Nga-yan	Channa striata	Freshwater; brackish;	1

Table 6 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘dried fish’ in past 7 days, by type of dried fish and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Dried snakehead	14	14	19	12	3	23	9	3
Dried Bombay duck	5	27	7	30	2	17	12	10
Dried anchovy (small)	13	1	4	1	3	11	1	4
Dried anchovy (butterflied)	0	0	0	0	0	6	0	0
Dried small freshwater fish	14	0	2	5	6	3	16	0
Dried medium freshwater fish	1	7	1	0	12	8	3	0
Dried large freshwater fish	0	0	0	0	0	0	3	0
Dried small marine fish	8	11	12	13	5	6	8	1
Dried medium marine fish	4	33	29	26	9	2	13	1
Dried large marine fish	0	7	5	2	0	2	11	0
Dried fish, origin unknown	1	0	3	0	1	12	12	0
No dried fish	44	27	27	23	60	26	23	82
Any dried fish	57	73	73	77	40	74	77	18

This section explores the percentage of households consuming dried fish, which is the main focus of this study. As shown in table-6, only three species were identified, and the rest of the fish were only categorized by their habitats, size and other details, which were asked during the survey. As shown in table-7, 45 species of dried fish were reported by the respondents, of which most inhabitant both freshwater and brackish. Unknown species accounted for 18%.

In general, the consumption of any type of dried fish is high in Mon (77%), Bago (73%), Kayin (77%), Mandalay (74%) and Yangon (73%), moderate in Ayeyarwady (57%) and Sagaing (40%), and low in Shan North (18%). It is observed that dried medium marine fish, dried Bombay duck, and dried snake head, which are marine and freshwater species, are consumed most.

Dried medium-sized marine fish accounts for 33% in Yangon, 10-30% in Bago, Kayin, Mon and Sagaing, while the remaining states and regions consumed less than 5% per household. As presented in table-7, Giant catfish, Chub mackerel, Pama croaker, Burmese River ilisha, Indo-Pacific king mackerel, Long whiskers catfish, Bombay Duck, and Flathead grey mullet are used the most to dry.

Dried Bombay duck was consumed in 30% of the households in Mon State, 27% in Yangon, over 10% in Kayin, Mandalay, Shan North, while the consumption in the remaining three states and regions was less than 10%.

23% of the households in Mandalay consumed dried snakehead within the 7 days before the survey, followed by 10%-20% in Bago, Ayeyarwady, Mon, Kayin and Yangon. The consumption rate of this species was the lowest in Sagaing and Shan North with 3%.

Table 7 - List of the Species that are used to be dried

English name	Myanmar name	Scientific name	Habitat	Number of responses
Unknown species				66
Giant catfish	Nga-yaung	Arius thalassinus	Marine, freshwater, brackish	35
Chub mackerel	Nga-mae-lone	Scomber japonicus	Marine;	34
Pama croaker	Nga-poke-thin	Otolithoides pama	Marine, freshwater; brackish	32
Burmese River ilisha	Nga-zin-pyar	Ilisha novacula	Freshwater	20
Indo-Pacific king mackerel	Nga-kwin-shat	Scomberomorus guttatus	Marine; brackish;	16
Long whiskers catfish	Nga-zin-yine	Mystus gulio	Freshwater; brackish;	15
Bombay Duck	Nga-hnat	Harpadon nehereus	Marine; brackish	14
Flathead grey mullet	Ka-bhi-lu	Mugil cephalus	Marine; freshwater; brackish	13
Variety Of Small Fish				11
Largehead hairtail	Nga-tan-khon	Trichiurus lepturus	Marine; brackish	9
Blackspot shark	Nga-man	Carcharhinus sealei	Marine;	9
Brushtooth Lizardfish	Nga-pa-lway	Saurida undosquamis	Marine	6
Peacock eel	Nga-mway-htoe	Macrognathus siamensis	Freshwater	6
Yellow Pike Conger	Nga-shwe	Congresox talabon	Marine; brackish;	5
Snakeskin gourami	Belar	Trichogaster pectoralis	Freshwater	4
Swamp barb	Nga-khone-ma	Puntius chola	Freshwater	4
Butter catfish	Nga-nu-than	Ompok bimaculatus	Freshwater; brackish	4
Dwarf Catfish	Nga-than-chaik	Pseudotropius acutirostris	Freshwater	4
Indian mackerel	Pa-la-tu	Rastrelliger kanagurta	Marine	4
Ocellated pufferfish	Nga-pu-tin	Tetraodon cutcutia	Freshwater; brackish;	4
Climbing Perch	Nga-bye-ma	Anabas testudineus	Freshwater; brackish	3
Long tongue sole	Nga-khwae-shar	Cynoglossus lingua	Marine; freshwater; brackish	3
Sailfin flyingfish	Nga-pyan	Parexocoetus brachypterus	Marine;	3
Hilsa Shad	Nga-tha-lauk	Tenualosa ilisha	Marine; freshwater; brackish	3
Striped snakehead	Nga-yan	Channa striata	Freshwater; brackish;	3
Pangas catfish	Nga-tan	Pangasius pangasius	Freshwater; brackish;	3
Blue tilapia	Ti-lar-bee-yar	Oreochromis aureus	Freshwater; brackish	3
Whiptail Stingrays	Nga-lake-kyouk	Dasyatidae	Marine	3
Anchovy	Nga-ni-tu	Stolephorus indicus	Marine; brackish	2
Eel-tailed catfish	Nga-eike	Tandanus tandanus	Freshwater;	2
Barramundi	Ka-ka-dit	Lates calcarifer	Marine; freshwater; brackish	2
Burmese loach	Nga-tha-le-htoe	Lepidocephalus berdmorei	Freshwater	2
Longfin Mogarra	Nga-bae-phyu	Pentaprion longimanus	Marine; brackish	2
Atlantic herring		Clupea harengus	Marine; brackish	2
Bearded eel goby	Nga-de	Taenioides cirratus	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1
Catfish	Nga-khoo	Clarias batrachus	Freshwater; brackish	1
Goldspotted grenadier anchovy	Mee-tan-thwae	Coilia dussumieri	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1
Cuchia	Nga-shint	Monopterus cuchia	Freshwater; brackish	1
False Travally	Nga-tee	Lactarius lactarius	Marine; brackish	1
Wallago	Nga-bat	Wallago attu	Freshwater; brackish	1
Gangetic leaffish	Nga-wetma	Nandus nandus	Freshwater; brackish	1
Paradise threadfin	Nga-pone-nar	Polynemus paradiseus	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1
Silver pomfret	Nga-moke-phyu	Pampus argenteus	Marine;	1
Salmon Catfish		Neoarius leptaspis	Marine; freshwater; brackish;	1
Stripped Goatfish	Kyoe-war	Upeneus vittatus	Marine; brackish	1
Indian threadfin	Ka-ku-yan	Polynemus indicus	Marine; brackish;	1

Table 8 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘dried shrimp’ in past 7 days, by size of dried shrimp and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Dried shrimp (jumbo)	0	0	0	0	0	3	0	0
Dried shrimp (big)	1	1	0	2	1	2	1	0
Dried shrimp (medium)	8	11	10	11	5	3	10	0
Dried shrimp (very small)	27	34	13	23	11	11	28	0
Dried shrimp powder	8	8	10	5	3	5	4	0
No dried shrimp	58	47	70	65	80	82	57	100
Any dried shrimp	42	53	30	35	20	19	43	0

Overall, any kind of dried shrimp consumption is high in Yangon (53%), Kayin (43%) and Ayeyarwady (42%), moderate in Bago (30%) and Mon (35%), and low in Mandalay (19%) and Sagaing (20%), with no consumption in Shan North.

As shown in table-8, dried shrimp is classified into five different sizes. Dried shrimp (very small) is the most consumed size, while dried shrimp (medium) was moderately consumed, followed by dried shrimp powder, dried shrimp (jumbo) and dried shrimp (big) which are rarely consumed in all states and regions.

Table 9 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘salted fish’ in past 7 days, by type of products and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Salted small freshwater fish	5	1	0	2	4	5	2	16
Salted medium freshwater fish	10	7	2	4	16	0	6	5
Salted large freshwater fish	0	1	0	0	0	2	0	0
Salted large marine fish	7	1	1	13	0	0	0	0
No salted fish	78	91	97	81	80	94	92	80
Any salted fish	22	9	3	19	20	6	8	20

Salted fish, Nga Sa Nel, is another form of processed fish. Table-9 shows that salted fish was consumed in around 10% to 20% of the households in Ayeyarwady, Mon, Saging, and Shan North. The other states and regions consumed less than 10%. Among the four types of salted fish, medium-sized freshwater is the most prominent one, followed by small-sized salted fish, and large-sized marine fish. Large salted freshwater species were rarely consumed. According to table-10, 23 species are used to be salted, of which 16 species inhabit both freshwater and brackish. Stone roller, Manipur osteobrama, Catfish, and Striped snakehead are the most common species. Unknown species accounted for 32%.

Table 10 - List of the species that are used to be salted

English name	Myanmar name	Scientific name	Habitat	Number of responses
Unknown species				46
Stone roller	Nga-lu	Crossochilus latia	Freshwater; brackish	13
Manipur osteobrama	Nga-phel-oun	Osteobrama belangeri	Freshwater;	12
Catfish		Clarias batrachus	Freshwater; brackish	11
Striped snakehead	Nga-yan	Channa striata	Freshwater; brackish;	10
Giant catfish	Nga-yaung	Arius thalassinus	Marine; freshwater; brackish	8
Squaretail mullet	Ka-be-lu	Ellochelon vaigiensis	Marine; freshwater; brackish	7
Swamp barb	Nga-khone-ma	Puntius chola	Freshwater	6
Clown knifefish	Nga-pe	Chitala chitala	Freshwater	3
Spotted snakehead	Nga yan-panaw	Ophiocephalus punctatus	Freshwater; brackish;	3
Wallago	Nga-bat	Wallago attu	Freshwater; brackish	3
Mrigal Carp	Nga-gyin	Cirrhinus cirrhosus	Freshwater; brackish	3
Indian glassy fish	Nga-zin-sat	Parambassis ranga	Freshwater; brackish	3
Pama croaker	Nga-poke-thin	Otolithoides pama	Marine; freshwater; brackish;	3
Long whiskers catfish	Nga-zin-yine	Mystus gulio	Freshwater; brackish;	3
Blue tilapia	Ti-lar-bee-yar	Oreochromis aureus	Freshwater; brackish	3
Brushtooth Lizardfish	Nga-pa-lway	Saurida undosquamis	Marine	2
Manipur osteobrama	Nga-phel-oun	Osteobrama belangeri	Freshwater;	1
Climbing Perch	Nga-bye-ma	Anabas testudineus	Freshwater; brackish	1
Eel-tailed catfish	Nga-eike	Tandanus tandanus	Freshwater;	1
Hilsa Shad	Nga-tha-lauk	Tenualosa ilisha	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1
Indo-Pacific king mackerel	Nga-kwin-shat	Scomberomorus guttatus	Marine; brackish;	1
Barramundi	Ka-ka-dit	Lates calcarifer	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1

Table 11 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘smoked fish’ in past 7 days, by type of products and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Smoked small freshwater fish	1	3	0	1	0	2	4	1
Smoked medium freshwater fish	1	1	0	3	0	2	8	0
Smoked large freshwater fish	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Other smoked fish	0	0	1	2	0	0	0	0
No smoked fish	98	96	99	94	100	97	88	99
Any smoked fish	2	4	1	6	0	3	12	1

The consumption of smoked fish is very low in all states and regions, as shown in table-11. 12% of the household in Kayin state consumed some kind of smoked fish, and with 1%-6% of the households in the other states and regions. No consumption is found in the Sagaing region. 14 species are used to be smoked, most of them inhabit both freshwater and brackish (table-12). Striped snakehead, Blue tilapia, and Swamp barb are mostly used to be smoked.

Table 12 - List of the species that are used to be smoked

English name	Myanmar name	Scientific name	Habitat	Number of responses
Unknown species				3
Striped snakehead	Nga-yan	Channa striata	Freshwater; brackish;	3
Blue tilapia	Ti-lar-bee-yar	Oreochromis aureus	Freshwater; brackish	3
Swamp barb	Nga-khone-ma	Puntius chola	Freshwater	3
Catfish	Nga-khoo	Clarias batrachus	Freshwater; brackish	2
Climbing Perch	Nga-bye-ma	Anabas testudineus	Freshwater; brackish	2
Eel-tailed catfish	Nga-eike	Tandanus tandanus	Freshwater;	2
Hilsa Shad	Nga-tha-lauk	Tenualosa ilisha	Marine; freshwater; brackish	2
Peacock eel	Nga-mway-htoe	Macrognathus siamensis	Freshwater	2
Stinging catfish	Nga-gyi	Heteropneustes fossilis	Freshwater; brackish	2
Pabdah catfish	Nga-nu-than	Ompok pabda	Freshwater	1
Gangetic leaffish	Nga-wetma	Nandus nandus	Freshwater; brackish	1
Brushtooth Lizardfish	Nga-pa-lway	Saurida undosquamis	Marine	1
Clown knifefish	Nga-pe	Chitala chitala	Freshwater	1
Barramundi	Ka-ka-dit	Lates calcarifer	Marine; freshwater; brackish	1

Table 13 - Percentage of Household consuming ‘other fish products’ in past 7 days, by type of products and region

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Balachaung (shrimp)	0	1	7	0	0	9	6	5
Balachaung (fish)	0	1	0	4	1	6	14	4
Other fermented shrimp product	1	3	1	1	0	0	1	3
Other fermented fish product	1	2	1	19	9	0	2	8
No other fish products	99	92	91	76	91	86	79	86
Any other fish products	1	8	9	24	10	14	21	15

Table-13 presents information on the household consumption of other fish products in the past 7 days before the survey. Four main products are identified in the other fish products category. In the Mon State, 24% of the households consumed some type of the other fish products, followed by 21% in Kayin and 10%-15% in Sagaing, Mandalay and Shan North. The consumption is lower than 10% in the remaining three states and regions. Among the four types, other fermented fish product is the most reported type, followed by Balachaung. Pickled fish is mainly found under ‘other fermented fish’. Pickled fish, Nga Chin, is a common fermented product, which is made by fermenting small fish or shrimps, mixed with rice and salt. Unlike Nga pi, it has a sour taste due to the fermentation with lactic acid bacteria. Nga Chin is mainly consumed as a side dish, prepared with onion and oil. According to table-13, it is consumed in 19% of the households in Mon State, 9% in Sagaing, and 8% in Shan North.

Figure 7 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Per capita consumption

Regarding the daily per capita consumption of fresh fish, freshwater fish consumption is seen in all states and regions, while marine fish consumption is mainly found in delta and coastal regions. The percentages for fresh shrimp and fresh fish of unknown origin is the lowest, and their consumption is only observed in some states and regions. It is worth noting that most people know the origin of their fish, indicating that people care about what type of fish they are consuming.

Figure 8a - Si Thu Lin / NAG

According to figure 7, the daily per capita consumption of freshwater fish ranges between 50-60 kg in Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kayin, Sagaing, and Yangon. Moderate consumption with 26 kg was observed in Mon State and was the lowest in Mandalay (17kg) and Shan North (6kg). Marine fish consumption was the highest in Mon State (37 kg), which is located near the coast. The consumption was moderately high in Ayeyarwady, Bago and Yangon with 10-20 kg, and lowest in Kayin (3kg) and Mandalay (2kg). Per capita consumption of fresh shrimp accounted for 1-8 kg, whereas fresh fish of unknown origin accounts for 2-3 kg.

Figure 8b - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Figure-8, extracted from table 14, shows the daily per capita consumption of four fermented product groups. The per capita consumption of Nga Pi Ye (freshwater) in the delta region was twice of the consumption in the south-east (Mon State and Kayin). Nga Pi Ye (marine) is mainly consumed in the delta region and Mon State, while it is low in the central dry zone, with no consumption in Kayin, Mandalay and Sagaing. No Nga Pi Ye consumption was found in the hilly region (Shan State). Per capita consumption of Shrimp paste is high in the central dry zone, moderate in Ayeyarwady, and low in Kayin and Bago, whereas per capita consumption of fish paste is high in Kayin, moderate in Yangon and Bago, and low in Mandaly. The per capita consumption of Ngapi Ye (freshwater) ranges between 10-14 kg, whereas the per capita consumption of Ngpi Ye (marine) ranges between 1-5 kg. Shrimp paste consumption accounts for 1-6 kg, while fish paste accounts for 1-5 kg.

Table 14 - Percentage of per capita consumption of different types of fermented products per day

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Ngapi Ye (freshwater)	9	12	14	7	0.1	1	7	0
Ngapi Ye (marine)	4	2	3	5	0	0	0	0
Shrimp paste (medium quality)	2	0	0.19	0	6	3	1	0
Fish paste (whole fish, single species)	1	0.45	1	0	0	0	3	0
Fish paste (broken fish, mixed species)	0.46	1	0	0	0	0	0.09	0
Shrimp paste (best quality)	0	0		0	0.02	2	1	0
Shrimp paste - Other)	0	0	1	0	3	2	0	0
Ngapi Ye (origin unknown)	0	0		0.37	0	0	0	0
Shrimp paste (low quality)	0	0	1	0	1	0	0	0.1
Fish paste (whole fish, mixed species)	0	2	1	0	0	0.44	5	0
Fish paste - Other	0	2	1	2	0	1	0	0

Figure 9 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Table-14 shows the per capita consumption for all the different fermented products. In general, per capita consumption of different Ngapi Ye types is the highest, followed by shrimp paste, and is the lowest for fish paste. The per capita consumption of Ngapi Ye ranges between 0.1-14 kg, 0.1-6 kg for shrimp paste and between 0.09-5 kg for fish paste.

Figure-9 shows the most consumed categories. Dried Bombay duck is the most consumed fish species and can be found in most states and regions. The per capita consumption of dried Bombay duck is significantly higher in Mon with 8kg, compared to 4kg in Mandalay, Shan North and Yangon, and was with 1kg the lowest in Ayeyarwady, Bago and Kayin. Dried medium-sized marine fish is the second most consumed type and its per capita consumption ranges between 0.18 and 7kg, followed by dried snakehead with a  per capita consumption ranging between 1 and 4 kg.  

Table 15 - Percentage of the per capita consumption of different types of dried fish per day

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
Dried small freshwater fish	4	0	1	1	1	0.4	3	0
Dried snakehead	2	1	4	4	0	3	2	0
Dried anchovy (small)	2	0.2	1	0.15	0	3	0	0.3
Dried Bombay duck	1	4	1	8	0	4	1	4
Dried small marine fish	1	3	3	3	0	1	1	0.05
Dried medium marine fish	1	6	7	5	1	0.18	2	0
Dried fish, origin unknown	0.15	0	1	0	0	8	2	0
Dried medium freshwater fish	0	1	0.22	0	2	1	0.45	0
Dried anchovy (butterflied)	0	0	0	0	0.04	1	0	0
Dried large freshwater fish	0	0	0	0	0	0	1	0
Dried large marine fish	0	2	0	0.43	0	0.15	2	0

Figure 10 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

The per capita consumption of Dried Bombay duck, dried fish of unknown origin, and dried marine fish are the highest, while dried freshwater fish, dried snakehead are only moderately consumed. Dried anchovy showed the lowest rate of consumption.

Figure 11 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Overall, per capita consumption of dried shrimp is high in Ayeyarwady, moderate in Bago, Kayin, Mon State and Yangon, and low in Mandalay and Sagaing, with no dried shrimp consumption in Shan North. Dried shrimp (jumbo) is the most consumed size and per capita consumption ranges between 1-2 kg, followed by dried shrimp (big) with 1 kg. The per capita consumption of dried shrimp (medium) ranges between 0.1-1 kg, at 0.12 kg for dried shrimp (very small), and with 0.26kg dried shrimp powder was consumed the least.

Figure 12 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Per capita consumption of salted fish is higher in Ayeyarwady compared to Mon State and Sagaing and is generally low in the other states and regions. Salted small freshwater fish are consumed the most and the per capita consumption ranges between 1-3kg, followed by salted large freshwater fish with a per capita consumption between 0.3-1 kg. Salted medium freshwater had the third highest per capita consumption ranging between 0.4-2kg, whereas salted large marine fish was the lowest.

Figure 13 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Figure-12 shows that per capita consumption of smoked fish is highest in Kayin State, followed by Yangon, and has been low in the other states and regions (Ayeyarwady, Bago, Mandalay, Mon and Shan North). There was no smoked fish consumption in Sagaing. Other smoked fish is the most consuming category, ranging from 0.1 to 1 kg, followed by smoked large freshwater fish with a per capita consumption ranging between 0.03 -1 kg. The medium sized category was the lowest one.

Figure-13 summarizes all the different categories of fish described in this study. For a better understanding of the figure, it should be noted that ‘any fish’ means any kind of fish, including fresh, dried, fermented, and ‘any processed fish’ includes everything except fresh and canned fish.

The overall fish consumption is high in delta (Ayeyarwady, Bago and Yangon) and southeast regions (Mon and Kayin), accounting for around 100 kg per day, moderate in central regions (Mandaly and Sagaing), with around 70 kg, and low in the hilly region (Shan North) with 14 kg. Generally, the per capita consumption of fresh fish is higher than the consumption of processed fish, except in Mandalay and Shan North. Per capita consumption of fresh fish ranges between 70-80 kg per day in delta regions, 50-60 kg in Southeast regions, 20-50 kg in the Central dry zone, and 6kg in the hilly region.

The per capita consumption of processed fish ranges between 40-50 kg in most of the states and regions, except Sagaing with 25 kg and Shan North with 9 kg. In the category of processed fish, fermented products are consumed the most, followed by dried fish. The per capita consumption of salted fish and dried shrimp is medium and the consumption of smoked fish and other fish products’ is low.

The per capita consumption of fermented fish products is high in delta and southeast regions, where most of the villages are located near the coast, and ranges between 10-15 kg. In the central dry zone region, the per capita consumption ranges between 10-15 kg and per capita consumption is low in hilly regions with only 0.2 kg.

Per capita consumption of dried fish is significantly higher in Mandaly and Mon State, with around 20kg. The consumption ranges between 10-17 kg in delta and southeast regions and Sagaing and Shan North have the lowest per capita consumption. Overall, per capita consumption of salted fish ranges between 1-5 kg, even though consumption is slightly higher in Ayeyarwady, Sagaing and Mon.

Figure 14 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

The per capita consumption of dried shrimp ranges between 1-4 kg, with the highest amount in the delta and southeast regions, whereas no dried shrimp is consumed in Shan North.  The per capita consumption of smoked fish is limited to a maximum of 1 kg, consumed mainly in Kayin and Mon State. For any other fish products, per capita consumption is below 2 kg, being the lowest in Yangon and Ayeyarwady.

Overall, in the 7 days before the survey, the fermented products were consumed the most, followed by fresh fish and dried fish, with dried shrimp being consumed the least. Salted fish was consumed by only one household and is only consumed in Ayeyarwady and Sagaing, whereas hardly any household consumed smoked fish.

In the category of processed fish, fermented products were consumed by only seven households and consumption was generally higher in delta and coastal regions, compared to the central dry zone and the hilly region, where no fermented products were consumed at all. Fresh fish was consumed on average 1-5 times in the 7 days. Similar to previous results, the consumption is higher in delta and coastal regions compared to the central and hilly regions. The frequency of dried fish consumption ranges between 1-3 times a week, whereas dried shrimp was only consumed twice, and not at all in the hilly region. The frequency of any salted fish consumption was the lowest and was only observed in Ayeyarwady and Sagaing. It is worth noting that in no state and region smoked fish was consumed in the 7 days before the survey.

Source of fish consumed

Share of households reporting consuming product, by source (sum can be different to 100% as households can obtain any category of fish from multiple sources, or cannot consume)

Table 16 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any fresh fish, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	61	80	81	76	69	69	67	17
from own production	54	19	18	32	8	3	20	18
from gift	1	3	5	0	5	0	2	1

Most of the respondents purchase some kind of fresh fish (60-80%), with own-production being slightly higher in Mon State (32%) and Ayeyarwady (54%) compared to Mandalay (3%) and Sagaging (8%). In other states and regions, the own-production rate ranges between 18-20%. Very few respondents received fresh fish as a gift (1-5%) (Table-16).

Figure 15 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Regarding the location of purchase, fresh fish is mainly purchased from village wet markets, followed by travelling vendors, and wet markets in urban areas. It is found that buying directly from fishers is the preferred way of purchase.

Less than half of the respondents from Ayeyarwady and Bago (40%) are buying fresh fish from travelling vendors, with only 10-30% in other states and regions (figure-15).

83% of the respondents from Mon State buy fresh fish from rural wet markets, with around 50% of the respondents from Mandalay, Sagaing and Shan North. This number is lower in Ayeyarwady, Bago and Kayin.

In Mandalay and Yangon, most respondents buy fresh fish from urban wet markets, accounting for 50% and 35%, respectively, whereas the other states and regions range between 5-10%.

In all states and regions, between 5% and 20% of the respondents buy fresh fish from fishers and buying from village stores and fish wholesaler is even less common.

Table 17 - Percentage of the share of households reporting consuming any dried fish, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	31	64	51	49	38	72	54	16
from own production	24	9	19	30	0	0	19	2
from gift	2	2	3	1	2	2	3	0

Figure 16 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

As presented in table-17, dried fish is mainly purchased, and own-production is low. In Bago, Kayin, Mandalay, Mon State and Yangon purchasing dried fish accounts for more than 50 per cent and more than 30% in Ayeyarwady and Sagaing. Mandalay has the highest number of purchases with over 70%, while Shan North has the lowest with 16%. Only 30% or less produce their own dried fish and only in areas close to the coast, such as Ayeyarwady and Mon. Receiving dried fish as a gift is very rare (< 5%).

Purchasing dried fish from village wet markets is common in Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Mon State (figure-16). In these three regions, 84% of the respondents buy dried fish from village wet markets. In other states and regions, fewer respondents purchase dried fish from village wet markets. In the central region (Mandalay and Sagaing) it is less than 30%.

In Yangon and Mandalay, purchases from the urban market are higher than compared to anywhere else, ranging from a minimum of 15% to a maximum of 30%.

Purchases from travel vendors are around 10% and no products are purchased from travelling vendors in Mandalay and Northern Shan.

Purchases from fishers and wholesalers are almost non-existent, with only 5% in some areas.

Table 18 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any dried shrimp, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	31	49	22	26	19	15	32	0
from own production	9	3	6	3	0	0	9	0
from gift	2	1	4	2	0	2	2	0

Figure 17 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Most of the dried shrimp is purchased (50%), with only 10% producing dried shrimp at home and less than 5% receiving it as a gift (table-18). In Sagaing and Bago more than 50% of the respondents buy dried shrimp from the urban wet markets while purchases from rural wet markets were the highest in Mon State with over 80% (figure-17). Purchases from travel vendors are below 10% and direct purchases from fish wholesalers and fishermen account for just over 5%. Purchases from village stores are common in all areas, except Bago and Sagaing.

Table 19 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any fermented products, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	61	69	38	61	82	65	39	5
from own production	29	17	52	22	0	0	37	0
from gift	1	2	2	1	0	0	3	0

Purchasing fermented products is very common (table-19). It is the highest in Sagaing with 82%, followed by Ayeyarwady, Mandalay, Yangon and Mon State (61%, 65%, 69%, 61% respectively), while it is the lowest in the Northern Shan State with 5%.

Figure 18 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Own-production is common in Bagon (52%), but there is no own-production in the central and hilly regions. Own-production ranges between 15% to 30% in other states and regions. Fermented products are rarely received as gifts (3%).

Fermented products are mainly bought from rural wet markets, accounting for almost 90% in Mon State, which is the highest among all the states, followed by the Shan North with more than 60% (figure-18). In Bago and Ayeyarwady and Yangon rural wet markest account for around 50% while it is around 30% in the other states and regions.

Purchases from urban wet markets account for70% in Mandalay, followed by 10% - 30% in Ayeyarwady and Yangon and for 5% to 10% in Bago, Kayin, Mon and Sagaing.

It is found that 56% of the respondents in Sagaing buy fish products from villages stores, followed by 33% in Kayin and Shan North, with the lowest in Bago, Mon State and Yangon with 5%-10%. Purchases from fish wholesalers or directly from fishermen are only found in some states, with a maximum of 10%.

Table 20 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any salted fish, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	61	69	38	61	82	65	39	5
from own production	29	17	52	22	0	0	37	0
from gift	1	2	2	1	0	0	3	0

Figure 19 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Salted fish is mainly purchased (table-20). In Sagaing, the majority of respondents (82%) buy their salted fish. Own-production is highest in Bago with 52% and it ranges between 17 % to 30% in most of the other states and regions, with no own-production in Mandalay and Shan North. Receiving salted fish as a gift is rather uncommon (3%).

There was almost no purchase of salted fish from village stores and fish wholesalers (figure-19), while purchases from rural wet markets are very common, followed by urban wet markets and travel vendors or directly from fishers.

The majority of respondents from Shan North (95%) purchase salted fish form rural wet markets, followed by more than half of respondents in Ayeyarwady, Kayin and Mon, whereas purchasing from rural wet markets is the lowest in Yangon with 33% of respondents. Purchases from the rural wet market are not observed in Bago.

In Yangon, Bago, and Mandalay, more than half of the respondents purchase salted fish from urban wet markets (67% and 50%, respectively). In Kayin and Mon State 25% of the respondents purchase salted fish from ubran wet markets and over a third of the respondents from Sagaing. There were no purchases from urban wet markets in Ayeyarwady and Shan North.

Purchasing salted fish from travelling vendors is most common in Bago with 50%, followed by 25% in Ayeyarwady. Respondents from other states and regions are not purchasing salted fish from travelling vendors. Buying salted fish from fishers is not very common in most of the states and regions, except in Ayeyarwady and Sagaing, accounting for 13 % and 18%.

Table 21 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any smoked fish, by source  

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	0	2	0	1	0	3	7	0
from own production	2	2	1	5	0	0	5	1
from gift	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0

Figure 20 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

The purchases and own-production of smoked fish are generally low in most of the states and regions, accounting for only 1-7% (table 21). Respondents buy smoked fish mainly from rural and urban wet markets, followed by purchases directly from fishers (figure 20). Village stores are the least common location of purchase.

Table 22 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any other fish products, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	1	7	5	17	10	14	13	12
from own production	1	1	3	7	0	0	7	1
from gift	0	0	1	0	0	0	2	2

Figure 21 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Purchasing rates of any other fish products ranged from 1% to 17% and own-productions ranged between 1% and 10% (table-22). Receiving any other fish products as a gift is negligible. Other fish products are mainly purchased from rural and urban wet markets, followed by village stores (figure 21). In Ayeyarwady, Mon State and Shan North, the majority of respondents purchase any other fish products from rural wet markets, whereas respondents from Yangon, Mandalay and Sagaing prefer urban wet markets. Village stores are the third most common location for purchases, especially in Bago with 60% of the respondents. Purchases from travelling vendors and fisher are less common (below 10%).

Table 23 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any processed fish, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	76	94	75	78	87	86	79	38
from own production	46	26	65	41	4	0	50	3
from gift	4	6	10	3	2	3	8	3

Figure 22 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Overall, processed fish is mainly purchased rather than own-produced (table-23). Purchases of any kind of processed fish were the highest in Yangon with 94%, followed by Mandalay and Sagaing with over 80%. In Ayeyarwady, Bago, Kayin and Mon State over 70% of respondents purchased processed fish and it was the lowest in Shan North with 38%. Similar to previous results, own-production of any processed fish is the highest in Bago with 65%. In regions located nearby rivers and sea (Ayeyarwady, Kayin, Mon State, and Yangon) the production was on average 40%, whereas it was the lowest in the central dry zone and hilly regions. Receiving any processed fish as a gift is not very common, accounting for around 10%.

Rural wet markets are the most common location to purchase any processed fish, except for the central dry zone region (figure-22). Urban wet markets are the second most common location followed by village stores. The percentages for the other three locations are negligible.

In Mon State, 83% of the respondents prefer to buy any processed fish from rural wet markets, 65% in Shan North. In Ayeyarwady and Bago, less than half of the respondents buy processed fish from rural wet markets, while in Yangon and Mandalay over a third of the respondents go to rural wet markets and 25% in Kayin.

Urban wet markets are more popular among respondents living in Mandalay and Yangon, with 65% and 37%, respectively. They are also popular in Ayeyarwady and Kyain, whereas less so in other states and regions. Purchases from urban wet markets are the lowest in Shan North with 8%.

Between 1% and 15% of the respondents buy processed fish from travelling vendors, whereas between 1% to 10% of the respondents buy it from fish wholesalers. Processed fish is rarely purchased from fishers (below 10%).

Table 24 - Percentage of share of households reporting consuming any fish, by source

	Delta & coastal region				Central dry zone		Hilly region
Source	Ayeyar-wady	Yangon	Bago	Mon	Sagaing	Mandalay	Kayin	Shan North
from purchase	80	99	91	92	99	94	86	50
from own production	63	37	66	45	8	3	53	19
from gift	5	8	12	4	8	3	11	5

Figure 23 - Si Thu Lin / NAG

Overall, in most states and regions, respondents are mainly buying any kind of fish, except for Shan North with only 50% (table-24). Apart from the delta and southeast regions, own-production is low as is receiving any fish as a gift.

The most preferred location to purchase any kind of fish are rural wet markets, except in Mandalay, followed by urban wet markets (figure 23). Travelling vendors and village stores are the third most common purchasing place, whereas purchases from fish wholesalers and fishers are less common.

Respondents from Mon State and Shan North prefer to purchase any kind of fish from rural wet markets, as do respondents from Ayeyarwady, Mandalay, Bago, Yangon, and Sagaing, while it is not very common in Kayin (23.6%).

Respondents who are living near big cities like Yangon and Mandalay are more likely to go to urban wet markets than rural wet markets and 59% of the respondents from Mandalay go to urban wet markets. In other states and regions, urban wet markets are not as popular as rural wet markets, with only 7% in Mon State.

More than a quarter of the respondents from Ayeyarwady and Bago purchases any kind of fish from travelling vendors and around 10% in Yangon and Kay. In Mon State, Sagaing, and Shan North less than 10% purchases fish from travelling vendors, with not purchases at all Mandalay.

In Sagaing, 32% of the respondents buy fish village stores, followed by over 20% in Kayin. The purchasing rate from village stores is over 10% in Shan North and Bago and below 5% in the remaining states and regions.

Purchases from fishers and fish wholesalers are low (maximum 10%), with no purchases at all in Mon State, Mandalay and Shan North.