Dried fish in Myanmar

This document provides a synthesis of Myanmar dried fish literature from DFM Zotero folder.

The literature is subdivided below based on four broad themes, namely: fisheries; production; trade; consumption.

Fisheries – ecology, organization and working conditions

Ruddle (1987)[1] provides an excellent and extremely detailed summary of the ecology, biology and fishing practices in floodplain fisheries in Cambodia and Myanmar. These share many similarities, including the utilization of much of the catch for fermented fish production. Nyein & Mathew (2017)[2], and Belton et al. (2019)[3] provide detailed accounts of the organization of the marine raft fishery in Mon and Ayeyarwady (Nyein & Mathew), and the marine raft and driftnet fisheries in Mon (Belton et al), and working conditions in these fisheries. Raft fisheries produce shrimp and mainly low value demersal fish, most of which is dried. The offshore segments of the raft and drift net fishery are heavily dependent of male migrant workers, with extremely dangerous and exploitative working conditions the norm, including debt bondage and withholding of safety equipment. Large numbers of workers in the raft fishery die each year due to accidents, illness, violence and storms. On-shore work in fish processing is mainly done by women. Belton et al find that workers in nearshore bagnet and driftnet fisheries are mainly local residents, and that though work is difficult and payment of advance wages is the norm labor arrangements are generally less exploitative than in offshore fisheries. Tezzo et al (2018)[4] note that women play a major role in post-harvest activities in Myanmar’s fisheries, accounting for most of the workforce in processing (e.g. fish drying) and retail trade, and playing a significant role in many wholesale trading operations (both fresh and dried fish).

Dried fish production & products

Two sources (Ruddle, 1987, and Tyn, 1993)[5] address the production of fermented fish products in Myanmar in considerable detail. Ruddle states that most fermented fish products in Burma are made from freshwater species. Historically, there has been a large domestic interregional trade in commercially-produced nga-pi (fermented fish). There remains, too, a vast small-scale production to satisfy rural household subsistence requirements. Virtually every farm household keeps a one-year supply of nga-pi made in the dry season (November- December) from fish trapped in the flood plain. and especially in the ricefields that it works. Moreover, the inland fisheries of Burma have long been worked commercially, and nga-pi prepared from freshwater fish was an important commercial article in the trade between the Mon country and the Kingdom of Ava. Ruddle and Tyn both discuss historical large-scale trade in nga pi from deltaic lower Burma to numerous locations in upper Burma. Tyn reports, for instance, that in the Seventeenth Century, Nga-pi was transported to upper Burma via the Irrawaddy River in large sailing ships that could carry more than 10,000 viss (>16 tons) per shipment. Lieberman (1991)[6] also reports that ‘several thousand ships’ bearing rice, salt, pickled and dried fish, and fish paste travelled from Lower to Upper Burma each year during this period.

Ruddle describes in some detail the species and methods of preparation used in production of three different grades of fermented fish product, and two types of fish paste. Tyn describes in even greater detail the production process for several different grades of fermented fish, fish and shrimp paste, and fish sauce, and some recent technical improvements to these production methods. Moe et al (2015)[7] discuss another type of fermented product – nga-chin/pazun-chin – fish or shrimp fermented with rice to produce a sour tasting product. Jereyam et al (2009)[8] mention that the distinctive type of fermented fish produced in NE India and Bangladesh (referred to as shidol in Bangla) is also consumed in Myanmar.

Tezzo et al (2018)[9] state that away from the coast, there is a strong preference for freshwater fish. They note that fish from inland fisheries are processed by drying, fermenting and salting to a somewhat lesser degree than marine catch, and state that inshore marine species are the main raw material for dried and fermented fish products. This contrasts sharply with observations about Myanmar’s dependence on imports of dried fish up to and including the 1960s due to low levels of marine fishery development (e.g. Soe, 2008)[10], and Ruddle’s observation that most fermented fish products in Burma are made with freshwater species (Ruddle, 1987)[11]. Based on a review of historical sources, Ruddle lists large freshwater fish species such as Wallago catfish and Catla carp as common ingredients in fermented fish products. At present, these species are relatively scarce and are usually marketed in fresh form. These observations may point toward a shift taking place in the origin of dried and fermented fish products away from inland fisheries, toward traditionally less preferred species and products from marine fisheries.

Several studies analyze the chemical or bacterial composition of fermented fish products produced in Myanmar. Moe et al (2015)[12] characterize the species of lactic acid bacteria in small fish fermented with boiled rice. Kobayashi et al. (2016)[13] evaluate the diversity of the bacterial community in Myanmar salted fish. Yoshida (1998)[14] and Tyn (1993)[15] present analysis of the amino acid profile of various fermented fish and shrimp products. Several of these studies indicate that fermented products generally have a high salt content. For instance, Kobayashi et al show that NaCl concentrations in sampled fermented fish products from Myanmar ranged from 18.3% to 35.3%.

Trade & traders

Several sources point to the importance of India as a source of dried fish exports to Burma, during the colonial period and up to and including the 1960s. These include Balachandran (1969)[16], Singh (1978)[17], and Pillai and Kama Sastry (1958)[18]. The latter source reports that dried shrimp produced on the West coast of India was also exported to Burma. Dependence on Indian imports of dried fish during this period is likely a consequence of the state of marine fisheries development in Burma during this period. Soe (2008)[19] states that until the early 1960s marine fisheries were very underdeveloped, in part due to a lack of transport infrastructure and government attention, with the result that there were only a few ‘family based traditional [fish] processing industries’ in coastal areas. Fisheries products were imported to make up the shortfall in demand, of which 80% was comprised of dried fish. 

Myanmar is also a source of dried fish exports. FAO (1983)[20] reported that much of the dried, salted and smoked finfish available in Malaysia originated from Thailand or Burma. It was difficult to differentiate between Thai and Burmese product available in Malaysia because “dried fish is one of the principle mediums of exchange in a risk barter trade on the Thai-Burmese border.” Most dried fish trade from Burma at that time was informal. Kleih (2003)[21] mentions Myanmar as a source of dried fish exports to Bangladesh. This is confirmed by Min and Kudo (2012)[22], who report that dried marine fish and shrimp products are exported from Rakhine State to Bangladesh by border trade. Upadhyay et al (2017)[23] report that (salted hilsa) is imported into NE India from Myanmar. Belton et al (2015)[24] list 15 dried marine fish and 10 dried freshwater fish products exported from Myanmar in 2010, amounting to 15,708 t. Two studies of traders on the Myanmar-Thai border at Myawaddy/Mae Sot mention dried fish as a commonly traded commodity there. Lee (2015)[25] states that dried fish is smuggled into Thailand along with other dried goods by ‘riverbank merchants’, while Kuncoro (2013)[26] discusses the case of a Myanmar Muslim trader on the Thai side of the border who procures dried fish from Yangon through her network of friends and relatives.

Consumption, health and nutrition

Belton et al (2015)[27] review fish consumption patterns revealed by data from a nationally representative household survey conducted in Myanmar in 2010. An average of 6.5 kg/capita of dried and processed fish products were consumed annually. These accounted for 34% of all fish consumption – more than consumption of fresh fish from freshwater capture fisheries (27%), farmed fish (21%), and fresh marine fish (18%). Although the share of processed fish in total consumption seems high, it falls within approximately the same range reported in some areas of the Lower Mekong River Basin with similar aquatic ecologies. Dried/processed fish are consumed in almost equal quantities in rural and urban areas, and consumption per capita of these products by the wealthiest 20% of the population is proximately double that found among the poorest 20% of households. This indicates that in Myanmar dried fish is not an inferior good (consumption does not decline with rising income). Belton et al. find that fermented fish/shrimp products are by far the cheapest animal source food other than milk, consumption of which was negligible. The unit price of dried fish is more than double that of fresh fish, but this price differential reflects water loss during the drying process, which makes it a concentrated source of nutrients, representing good value for money despite the high nominal price.

Writing about farming households in the Dry Zone, Antonio (2015)[28] writes that a typical meal is a big portion of rice with chickpeas and fish paste, in some cases together with vegetables. This meal is consumed at least twice per day. In contrast, meat is usually consumed 1-3 days a week, and in small portions. Dry fish is eaten in small portions, on an almost daily basis. Jolly (1930)[29] analyzed the causes of an outbreak of Beriberi on a remote island in Rakhine in 1929. During dry season, fresh fish was obtained in abundance and eaten by coastal villagers, and salted fish was produced and sent inland where it was exchanged for vegetables, fruits and pulses. Fishing stopped with the onset of the rains, leaving households without fresh fish, while salted fish became scarce and expensive. Food consumption was reduced to rice, small quantities of fish paste, and tree leaves and bamboo shoots. Deficiency in vitamin B rich foods at this time led to a severe outbreak of Beriberi. The outbreak ended in the autumn when fish and vegetables became available again. 

Articles reviewed point to a range of associations between dried fish consumption and different aspects of health and nutrition. Postmus (1956)[30] reported that expectant and nursing mothers, frequently starve themselves because they think that a rich diet may cause abnormal growth of the foetus and end in difficult and painful labour. During this time, their diet consists of large quantities of rice supplemented with small pieces of dried fish, some oil, and occasionally a small piece of mutton or a small helping of pulses, without any vegetables, fruits, eggs or milk. Sein (2013)[31] reports that folk wisdom prohibits consumption of some dried fish products in the postpartum period. These include pickled fish, preserved salted fish, dried sea fish, and anchovy sauce. However, dried freshwater fish and fish sauce with garlic are prescribed foods during this period. Sea fish and seafood are thought to cause drowsiness. Preserved salted fish and anchovy sauce are categorized as foods causing hypertension and drowsiness. Anchovy sauce is thought to lead to loose motion of the bowls. Fish sauce and garlic is said to expel putrid things from the body. Naing & Aung (2014)[32] report participants in a focus group discussion on factors contributing to hypertension in Myanmar, stating, “salted fish paste is essential for us. Though it may increase blood pressure, it is cheap and hence, we, as poor people, have to eat it”, suggesting that negative health outcomes of dried fish consumption may disproportionately affect poorer consumers.

References

Antonio, M.E.R. 2015. Patterns of access to land by Chinese agricultural investors and their impacts on rural households in Mandalay Region, Myanmar. Unpublished Masters’ Thesis. Universität Hohenheim

Balachandran, K.K., 1969. An accelerated method of hot air drying of fish. Fishery Technology 6, 124–123.

Belton, B., Aung Hein, Kyan Htoo, L Seng Kham, Nischan, U., Reardon, T., Boughton, D., 2015. Aquaculture in Transition: Value Chain Transformation, Fish and Food Security in Myanmar. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1715.0805

Belton, B., Marschke, M., Vandergeest, P., 2019. Fisheries development, labour and working conditions on Myanmar’s marine resource frontier. Journal of Rural Studies 69, 204–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2019.05.007

FAO. 1983. Cured Fish: Market Patterns and Prospects. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Jereyam, K. et al. 2009. Traditional Fermented Foods of Manipur. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 8(1)115-121.

Jolly, G.G., 1930. “Beriberi” in Cheduba Island, Arakan, Burma. Ind Med Gaz 65, 383–386.

Kleih, U. 2003. Fish distribution from coastal communities in Bangladesh - market and credit access issues. Final technical report (NRI report no. 2713). Technical Report. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Kobayashi, T., Taguchi, C., Kida, K., Matsuda, H., Terahara, T., Imada, C., Moe, N.K.T., Thwe, S.M., 2016. Diversity of the bacterial community in Myanmar traditional salted fish yegyo ngapi. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 32, 166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-016-2127-z

Kuncoro, W., 2013. Manipulating Identity among Burmese Muslim Traders: A Case Study of Mae Sod Cross Border Trade. Procedia Environmental Sciences, The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Future for Human Security, Kyoto University, JAPAN 17, 852–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2013.02.103

Lee, S.K., 2015. Behind the Scenes: Smuggling in the Thailand-Myanmar Borderland [WWW Document]. https://doi.org/info:doi/10.5509/2015884767

Lieberman, V., 1991. Secular Trends in Burmese Economic History, c. 1350–1830, and their Implications for State Formation. Modern Asian Studies 25, 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X00015821

Min, A., Kudo, T. 2012.Newly Emerging Industrial Development Nodes in Myanmar: Ports, Roads, Industrial Zones along Economic Corridors. In: Emerging Economic Corridors in the Mekong Region, edited by Ishida, M. BRC Research Report No.8, Bangkok Research Center, IDE-JETRO, Bangkok, Thailand

Moe, N.K.T., Thwe, S.M., Shirai, T., Terahara, T., Imada, C., Kobayashi, T., 2015. Characterization of lactic acid bacteria distributed in small fish fermented with boiled rice in Myanmar. Fish Sci 81, 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-014-0843-6

Naing, C., Aung, K., 2014. Prevalence and Risk Factors of Hypertension in Myanmar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 93. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000000100

Nyein, Y., Mathew, S. 2017. The Tiger’s Mouth: Myanmar Kyarr Phong Fishery. Samudra Report No. 75.

Pillai, V.K., Kamasastri, P.V., 1958. Fish curing and fishery by-products. Presented at the Fisheries of the west coast of India, Calicut, pp. 94–100.

Postmus, S., 1956. Nutrition work in Burma past and present. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 15, 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1079/PNS19560008

Ruddle. K. 1987. The Ecological Basis for Fish Fermentation in Freshwater Environments of Continental Southeast Asia: with Special Reference to Burma and Kampuchea. Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology, 12 (1): 1–48

Sein, K.K., 2013. Beliefs and practices surrounding postpartum period among Myanmar women. Midwifery 29, 1257–1263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2012.11.012

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Tezzo, X., Belton, B., Johnstone, G., Callow, M., 2018. Myanmar’s fisheries in transition: Current status and opportunities for policy reform. Marine Policy 97, 91–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.08.031

Tyn, M.T. 1993. Trends of Fermented Fish Technology in Burma. In: Lee, C.H (Ed.), Fish Fermentation Technology. United Nations University Press, Tokyo.

Upadhyay, A.D., Pandey, D.K., Dhar, B., 2017. Value Chain Analysis of Dry Fish in North-East Region of India. In: Mani, G., Joshi, P.K., Ashok, M.V. (Eds.), Financing Agriculture Value Chains in India: Challenges and Opportunities, India Studies in Business and Economics. Springer, Singapore, pp. 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5957-5_8

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